Clarifying and Defining the Concept of Liquid Democracy

Liquid Democracy (LD) is a recent phenomenon that could radically affect our understanding of democracy. Yet, there remains significant semantic confusion surrounding this concept, and researchers in the social sciences, as well political theory, currently lack general definition broadly accepted standard reference. Therefore, article addresses following question: What LD how can we best define it? Following classical, approach to concept formation tradition Giovanni Sartori John Gerring, advances new, minimal definition: decision-making scheme characterized by liquidity—that systemic flexible mix direct representative democracy—and essentially based on principles voluntary delegation proxy voting. This serve starting point from which further theoretical normative studies be conducted future. ist ein neues Phänomen, welches unser Verständnis von Demokratie grundlegend verändern könnte. Dennoch herrscht nach wie vor erhebliche semantische Unklarheit Bezug auf dieses Konzept, und den Forschern Sozialwissenschaften auch der politischen Theorie fehlt derzeit eine allgemeine Definition, die als Standardreferenz weithin akzeptiert wird. Dieser Artikel befasst sich daher mit folgenden Forschungsfrage: Was können wir sie am besten definieren? In Anlehnung an einen klassischen, semantischen Ansatz zur Begriffsbildung Tradition Gerring wird neue, minimale Definition vorgeschlagen: Entscheidungsfindungssystem, durch Liquidität auszeichnet, d. h. systemische Mischung aus direkter repräsentativer Demokratie, im Wesentlichen Prinzipien freiwilligen Delegation Stimmrechtsvertretung beruht. Diese kann Ausgangspunkt für weitere Studien über Zukunft dienen. La démocratie liquide (DL) est un phénomène récent qui pourrait affecter radicalement notre compréhension de la démocratie. Cependant, il subsiste une certaine sémantique autour ce et n'existe actuellement aucune définition générale soit largement acceptée comme référence par les sociologues ainsi que philosophes politiques. Par conséquent, cet aborde question suivante: Qu'est-ce DL comment pouvons-nous définir au mieux ? En suivant approche classique des concepts dans l'article propose nouvelle minimale: système prise décision caractérisé liquidité, c'est-à-dire combinaison systémique directe représentative, repose sur principes délégation volontaire du vote procuration. Cette peut servir départ à futures études DL. democrazia liquida è fenomeno recente che potrebbe influenzare radicalmente nostra comprensione della democrazia. Permane tuttavia una certa confusione semantica intorno questo concetto, e attualmente manca definizione generale sia ampiamente accettata come riferimento da sociologi così filosofi politici. Questo articolo affronta dunque seguente domanda: Cos'è possiamo definirla al meglio? Seguendo approccio classico semantico alla formazione dei concetti nella tradizione di l'articolo avanza nuova minima: uno schema decisionale caratterizzato dalla liquidità, ossia l'unione sistemica flessibile diretta rappresentativa, si basa sui principi delega volontaria del voto per delega. Questa può servire punto partenza studi futuri sulla Imagine group (or population) with universal suffrage, all whose members voters) are entitled—for every collective decision policy)—to either cast their directly or delegate it proxy). Anybody freely decide why whom vote, run proxy. Voters choose different representatives for issues, each representing original voters one more policies, policy areas, so long not withdrawn. There no cap total number representatives, proxies redelegate other proxies. For decision, non-delegating single while delegated votes plus own. If assume, simplify, decisions binary, outcome defined majority rule. entire process facilitated information communication technologies. As I will demonstrate, brief overview describes core mechanics nascent called (LD). The gained prominence 2010s, mainly thanks German Pirate Party, but term itself had already been present online since early 2000s. these venues, has generally celebrated hybrid-voting scheme, combining addition lively debate, academic literature computing game theory increasingly engaged idea (e.g., Christoff & Grossi, 2017; Fan al., 2020). Despite praise received computer enthusiasts growing interest its technical implementation, remained largely unaddressed science philosophy. resulted inconsistent formulations LD, leading conceptual needs addressed before empirical undertaken. Hence, By engaging formation, provides first in-depth analysis aims clarify meaning foster critical debate. doing, follows up slow increase attention recently enjoyed democratic Blum Zuber, 2016; Landemore, 2020; Lucardie Vandamme, 2021; Valsangiacomo, 2021). structured follows: First, methodological framework. then reconstruct history survey various definitions. break down into basic elements map out three properties have most prominently highlighted literature—proxy representation, delegation, deliberation—and important, yet unsatisfactory, attempts LD. next section contains my analysis, focusing necessary sufficient conditions defend use qualifier “liquid” argue that, was initially intended improve intra-party legitimacy, hardly transposed context elected legislatures lawmaking. thus parsimonious two properties: liquidity (the systemic, mixture democracy), Finally, evaluate conclude briefly addressing some criticisms highlighting relevance theory. introduces approach—represented Gerring—that follow articulating conception My classical insofar longstanding philosophical complex breaking them simpler components Laurence Margolis 2003: 8–27; Olsthoorn, 2017: 164–167; Riemer, 2010: Ch. 7). definitional view reductionist because singles only those features cases falling under given share. general, identify set and, taken together, concept. result typically corresponds what identifies definitions, namely specialized definitions revolve around abstract, resonating principle or, commonly, component nearly everyone would accept (Gerring, 2001: 135–136; Barresi, 205–209). Minimal resemble Weberian ideal types both approximate real handful highly consistent other.11 identification aligned (1999: 386) conflicts his later works 2001; 2003). Although means unchallenged—one prominent alternative being family resemblance theory—it practice contemporary makes semiotic triangle, tool repeatedly invoked (1970, 1984) (1999, 2001, 2012), theorizing about words. triangle word arbitrarily linked real-world object—or class objects—to refers (i.e., referent, extension, denotation, definiendum). enables meaningful connection between mental perception symbol associated minds reference, intension, connotation, definiens). words, mediate reality language, residing vertex triangle. Concept involves dynamic “triangulation” word, 1999: 389). Semantic arise when, new appears world unclear whether possess coherent it. coin neologism, “liquid democracy” does provide insight meaning. It similarly problematic at exemplar claim “this really LD”—while step, such ostensive insufficient grasp essence We need precise elaborate useful it, “intended seize object” singling instances (Sartori, 1984: 30). Classical might look austere, carving quite elaborate. (1984: 40) proposes step step. “canvassing” “assessing current state literature.” Here, points organize intension light existing literature. He suggests collecting extracting possible characteristics, creating matrix properties, grasping configuration. Similarly, (2001: 131–134; 205–207) recommends making sampling usages On basis review, recommend constructing typology results. done Reconstruction. second create proposing revised, hopefully improved definition. 51) invites us select designator discusses stage proper, distinguishing import versus utility 54). theorist, lean towards former. General abstract contextual adaptability across research projects disciplines), they mapping organizational purposes, foundation scientists theorists. That said, try avoid highest level abstraction: negation 1970: 1042). Instead, prefer positively, aiming least connotation. 55–56) concept's defining i.e., true (a priori) bound extension. Formation. 2001) depth criteria goodness adopt, arguing emphasize desiderata, depending function fulfill 367). him, series trade-offs among desiderata. Some familiarity, resonance) purely linguistic. address Liquidity Designator, when justifying choice retain label “liquidity.” Other field utility) extra-conceptual, sense driven reflections overall framework agenda. These concerns central touch (field conclusion, discussing implications article, focus desideratum coherence, consistency within presence clear, logical relationship attributes. Coherence achieved revolves principles, essentialist compatible approach. usually goes hand parsimony, size length list 55) notes, desirable own sake, rather consequence selecting attributes conditions). proposed here embraces criteria. 380) notes describing precisely “demands plenitude,” deep differentiated better suited task. Like many parsimonious, especially differentiated. desiderata lacking entirely: Depth proportionate shared phenomena extension shown A New positive liquidity, delegations, voting). Moreover, Reconstruction, introduce several peripheral even without included final definition, additional depth. terms differentiation vis-à-vis neighboring same field, advanced fare too badly. discuss exemplify Evaluation, successfully delineates forms democracy innovations. Thus, sections dedicated, respectively, sequential stages reconstruction, evaluation. emerged turn century distinctly non-academic Adler, 2018: 94; Paulin, 2019: 75–79). coined forums applications, older partly rooted niche debates. line outlined above, surveys order elucidate LD.22 exercise differs chronological 2018; Jabbusch, 2011). results reconstruction presented Three Conceptual Origins key Existing Definitions, presents According reinterpretation literature, main deliberation. All subsumed higher-level proxy-representation conceived 1910s ensure strong proportional representation modifying traditional parliamentary rule “one member parliament—one vote.” voluntary-delegation appeared 1960s promote greater participation expertise letting citizens directly. online-deliberation introduced 2000s quality encouraging subsections, corroborate procedural turn. pervasive “proxy” derives Latin verb procurare, take care (-curare) something someone behalf (pro-) (Online Etymology Dictionary 2019). vague wide range representation.33 Ranging procurator, proctor, attorney delegate, deputy, substitute, mercenaries, auxiliaries privateers, clinical figure surrogate patients. described “the agency, function, office deputy who acts substitute another” (Merriam-Webster 2019), authority represent else, voting” (Oxford University Press (OUP), person assumes others.44 also refer written agreement, contract, through allowed another. example, if British expats soldiers cannot mail, nominate close relative behalf, An analogous mechanism exists France (where postal voting permitted), termed procuration, Swiss cantons municipalities, ballots third parties, known Stellvertretende Stimmabgabe. used indicate widespread corporate delegating shareholder authority. Whenever personally attend company's annual meeting, trusted often instructions signed card prepared advance. case, expected carry explicit represented, physically unable vote. efficient technologies were available (like secure internet voting), longer needed. signify mere must technology-enabled Interestingly, “a value calculation” statistics, confronted unobservable phenomena. measure operationalize variable, statisticians commonly indirect measure, surrogate, variable correlation Not equally suitable accurate. politics, represents, ideally great accuracy, chose him Accuracy understood levels. hand, substantive metaphysical sense, statistical validity: Does stand supposed represent? accuracy formal criterion correctness computational process: important systematically flawlessly computation. be: How accurately weight reflect distribution power voters? Or, polity: man–one vote” after translating seats? forerunners embraced answer latter question. Now comes idea. provided any roll call legislative assembly against he polls. socialist prohibitionist able full strength party, though elected. (New York Times 1912) Let assume Congress simply authorized him. added computers differential weighting standing voters. […] individual national referendum body achieve. (Tullock, 1967: 145) Tullock's proposal hinged fundamental assumption, proponents unlimited representatives. With voting, rarely equal legislature; instead weighted shares constituents gives voter, representative, legislature. (Alger, 2006: 4) achieve perfectly system population's approximated maximum seats uncapped, giving unequal way justice maintain representativeness. For, pure democracy, agree person—one fair, treats satisfying anonymity (Hodge Klima, 2005: 4). is, whenever disagreement emerges, fair compromise reached voter control over choices (Christiano, 1996: 96), imperatively requires prevention systematic exclusion wastage votes. where fairest apply via minimizes (procedural) compared majoritarian systems. procedure guaranteeing cannot, however, democracies, fixed-seat parliaments competitive elections. lies matching seats, applies. contrast, departs fixed specified priori, electoral competition votes-seats transformation eliminated. Most importantly, absence eliminated: registered tallied exception. Tallying therefore, preserve voters’ Ironically, “procedural inequalities” perfect weights (Beitz, 1983).66 See Latimer's attempt (2018). His hypothetical plural strikingly resembles argument boils representation. occurs proxy-voting differ practices: Citizens express preferences electing candidate represents them, timespan. assumed “voluntary” (Green-Armytage, 2015: 191). voluntariness delegations free “choice role,” liberty keep particular issue (Ford, 2002: extreme seems reason people wish should themselves casting proposals. 146) Instead periodically tenure years more, allow directly, else like? (Miller, 1969: 108) Proponents aspire “participativeness” (McCarthy, 2013: 6). therefore unsurprising Miller, antipodal outcomes delegation: citizen always power, transforming facto pure, effectively practice, Miller posited intermediary situation likely, issues retaining others. rests assumptions. claims self-determination. entails right citizen: area-specificity easy adaptability.77 One day, matters elementary education, tertiary act public health give education. Or she abandon activism entirely her somebody else. occasionally polls importance her. instant recall principle, punish reward waiting election date, another promotes flexibility accommodates changing values opinions, simultaneously sheltering proxies’ misbehavior preventing violations self-determination principle. flow concerning citizens’ granular 2013), proximity basis,88 dimensions selection common interest, identity, geographical proximity, etc.) left citizen's discretion. persists potential pool kept large possible.99 Low barriers purpose. Ford (2002: 5) scholar made concrete entry exam. Indeed, make “information bearing” 3) descriptive (Valsangiacomo, 2021: “content expressiveness” (Mendoza, 49). contain suggestion subject problem ones resolution. 8) expects lay delegates coexist cooperate, constituting favor delegations: leverages division labor likely maximize traps elitist technocracy 108). inclusive lower costs participation, this, together labor, mobilizes burdening exorbitant costs.1010 Zuber's epistemic superiority premise (2016: 168). Valsangiacomo (2021: elaborates LD’s anti-elitism. transfer re-delegate certain kinds specific areas discussion. 6) Ford, metadelegation allows proxy-agreements search “policy area expertise” (Blum 2016: flexible, transitive: B C proxies, X issue. grants B, transfers C, holds A, X.1111 Lewis Carroll similar model transitive candidates